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Identifying the Sources of Motivation in the Post-Game Press Conference:
An Exercise for Applying an Integrative Taxonomy of Motivation
John E. Barbuto, Jr.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
ABSTRACT
This exercise provides an interesting application of an integrative taxonomy of motivation. Students are allenged to identify the sources of motivation driving the behaviors and comments of several individuals associated with a high school league championship game. Students completing this exercise enhance critical thinking skills and demonstrate their understanding of the construct.
Purpose and Audience for this Exercise
The concept of motivation has a strong presence in organizational behavior, human resources, management, and leadership courses. Innovative classroom activities incorporating motivation theory are therefore at a premium in higher education. The exercise described herein provides an innovative application of an integrative taxonomy of motivation sources for use in the classroom or training setting. This exercise was developed for an undergraduate leadership dynamics course as a means for studying motivation. Because the exercise uses the organizational behavior concept of motivation, it may be useful in several organizational behavior, organizational management, management, and human resource management courses that cover the topic. The exercise is appropriate for any size class, as the majority of work is done with small groups of three or four students. The exercise is designed to take approximately 30-45 minutes to complete and process.
This exercise (see appendix) offers a creative and innovative method of learning complex material. After completing this exercise, students can/will:
· Understand the five sources of motivation.
· Differentiate between the sources of motivation based on behavioral indicators.
· Identify the sources of motivation when evident in behaviors.
· Assess the motivational profiles of individuals based on limited information.
Motivation: Content for the Exercise
This exercise is based entirely on the integrative taxonomy of motivation sources (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998; Leonard, Beauvais & Scholl, 1999). A description of the integrative nature of this model and behavioral indicators follows.
Motivation has been one of the most intriguing yet elusive concepts in the social sciences over the past fifty years. There have been many perspectives offered from different fields. These perspectives have included psychosocial (Jung, 1971) expectancy (Vroom, 1964;), need-based (Alderfer, 1969; Maslow, 1954; McClelland, 1985), social identification (Ashforth & Mael, 1989), value-based (Etzioni, 1961; Katz & Kahn, 1978), goal setting (Locke & Latham, 1984), self concept-based (Brief & Aldag, 1981; Sullivan, 1989), and ego development (Kegan, 1982; Loevinger, 1976) perspectives. Arguments over the merits of each viewpoint have been long and
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exhaustive in the social sciences literature. The results of such efforts have generally fallen short of providing an integrative framework, until Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl (In Press) proposed an integrative model of work motivation that synthesized the divergent perspectives in the field. Barbuto and Scholl (1998) advanced the theory with a more focused literature review and development and validation of scales to measure these motivation sources. The sources of motivation have performed well in preliminary research efforts, showing strong correlations with influence behaviors in work settings (Barbuto & Scholl, 1999).
The classroom exercise presented in this paper is based on this integrative taxonomy. These sources of motivation include intrinsic process, instrumental, external self-concept, internal self-concept, and goal internalization. Research using this taxonomy has examined influence tactics (Barbuto & Scholl, 1999; Barbuto, Fritz, & Marx, in press), transformational leadership (Barbuto, Fritz, & Marx, 2000) and other miscellaneous variables.
Instrumental motivation. - Instrumental rewards motivate followers when they perceive their behaviors will lead to certain tangible extrinsic outcomes such as pay or promotions. These individuals engage in tangible exchange relationships (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998). This source integrates Barnard’s (1938) material inducements, McClelland’s (1985) need for power, Katz and Kahn's (1978) legal compliance, and Kegan’s (1982) imperial stage of ego development.
Self-concept external motivation. - This motivation tends to be externally based; followers attempt to meet the expectations of others by behaving in ways that elicit social feedback consistent with their self-concept (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998). Followers behave in ways that satisfy reference group members, first to gain acceptance and then status. This source of motivation is similar to Etzioni's (1961) social moral involvement, McClelland’s (1985) need for affiliation, and Barnard’s (1938) social inducements and is also incorporates referent influences such as social identification theory (Ashforth & Mael, 1989).
Self-concept internal motivation. - In this source of motivation, followers set internal standards of traits, competencies, and values that become the basis for the ideal self. They are motivated to engage in behaviors that reinforce these internal standards and later achieve higher competency (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998; Leonard, et al., in press). This source integrates McClelland's (1985) need for achievement, Kegan’s institutional stage of ego development, Bandura’s (1986) personal standards and self-regulation.
Goal internalization motivation. – In this source of motivation, followers adopt attitudes and behaviors based entirely on their personal value systems (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998). This source integrates Etzioni’s (1961) pure moral involvement, Katz and Kahn’s (1978) internalized values, and Kegan’s (1982) inter-individual stage of ego development.
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Table 1
Sources Of Motivation
Motivation Source Definitions
Intrinsic Process derived from fun or enjoyment during the task
Instrumental derived from expectations of tangible rewards
Self-Concept External derived from a desire to improve one’s reputation and image
Self-Concept Internal derived from a need to meet personal standards and achieve
Goal Internalization derived from a deep-rooted belief in the cause or principle
Behavioral Indicators of Each Source of Motivation
It is important as you read about these sources of motivation to understand that each exists in various proportions in each of us, but in varying degrees. No person is motivated exclusively by just one source of motivation. To truly understand an individual’s motivation, one would need to consider the pattern of distribution of these sources within an individual (Barbuto & Scholl, 1999). The descriptions and behavioral indicators provided next are adapted from an earlier publication (Barbuto & Brown, 1999).
Intrinsic process (fun) motivation is characterized by task pleasure and sheer enjoyment of the work. Some of the behavioral indicators that suggest an employee is motivated by intrinsic process include:
· One is easily taken off tasks when one doesn’t enjoy the tasks assigned.
· One will often talk about how much one likes or dislikes the tasks assigned.
· One will volunteer freely for the activities that one enjoys most.
· One may not be very good at a job, if one doesn’t enjoy doing it.
Instrumental ($$$) motivation is characterized by a concern for tangible incentives (e.g. pay, bonus, or leave allowances). Some of the behavioral indicators that suggest an employee is instrumentally motivated include:
· One will ask “What’s in it for me?”
· One will expect compensation for any and all extra work one performs.
· One will talk about how much money one makes or should make.
· One will frequently talk about the relative wealth of others.
Self-concept external (reputation) motivation is characterized by a concern for others’ opinions. An employee motivated this way is very interested in preserving and enhancing reputation amongst peers and supervisors. Some of the behavioral indicators that suggest an employee is motivated by self-concept external include:
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· One will frequently ask for others’ feedback.
· One will seek praise and recognition for work performed.
· One will often brag or tell stories about accomplishments.
· One will be attentive to who gets the credit when work is finished.
Self-concept internal (achievement) motivation is characterized by a concern for meeting one’s personal standards of job performance. An employee motivated this way is not concerned with others’ feedback and tends to be self-driven. Some of the behavioral indicators that suggest an employee is motivated by self-concept-internal include:
· One will seek to perform the most difficult tasks at work.
· One will work best when one’s skills are needed for the tasks.
· One will be interested in developing one’s range of skills.
· One will perform the most important tasks with little supervision or direction.
Goal internalization (principles) motivation is characterized by a need to believe in the cause at work. An employee motivated this way uses value-based principles to guide decisions and actions. Some behavioral indicators that an employee is motivated by goal internalization include:
· One will ask about the purpose of tasks (“Why are we doing this?”).
· One will comment on the strategic focus of the operation.
· One will work hard when one believes in the cause and not at all if one doesn’t.
· One will live a professional life guided by a strict set of principles and values.
Exercise Instructions
1. Ideally, the five sources of motivation should be discussed in the class session prior to the exercise. To encourage students to study the concept carefully, inform them that they will be using the theory in an exercise during the next class meeting. If time is limited, however, the exercise can be administered following a ‘mini-lecture’ on the model.
2. Divide class into groups with 3-4 students per group.
3. Distribute a copy of the exercise handout to each student.
4. Instruct the students to read each scenario then identify the source(s) of motivation that seem to be driving the behavior. Encourage groups to work together and to challenge each other by asking rationale for choices.
5. The instructor may want to visit each of the groups during the next 5-10 minutes to answer students’ questions regarding the material or exercise.
6. After about ten minutes, begin to process the first person. As you process the sources of motivation driving the behaviors, students should become increasingly more confident in their ability to assess the sources of motivation depicted by their actions and statements.
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Processing Instructions
Although more than one source of motivation may be selected when reviewing the scenarios, it is most important to focus on the students’ rationale for the choices they make. See Appendix. As you process these one-sentence scenarios with the class, focus on students’ rationale and encourage them to see links to the motivation theory. A few core questions that are helpful to ask students are provided:
Which sources of motivation seem to be affecting the individual’s behavior?
Why did you select these sources of motivation? What gave it away for you?
These questions will keep students focused on applying the sources of motivation to the provided scenario.
Scenario 1: Michael
Michael seems to be either motivated by self-concept internal motivation or by goal internalization. Because he isn’t concerned about any rewards or whether others appreciate his contributions to the team winning, he doesn’t demonstrate instrumental or self-concept external motivation.
Scenario 2: Rick
Rick appears to be motivated heavily by self-concept external because it seems important to point out his contributions to winning the game. Also, because he talks about ‘showcasing his talents’, this also plays into the self-concept external motivation source. Some might argue that there is also some instrumental motivation in Rick. This may be true, but it is not evident in the scenario.
Scenario 3: Coach
Coach seems to be motivated by either self-concept internal motivation or by goal internalization. He doesn’t have the need to bring his contributions towards team success to the public, but rather focused on the contributions of the players. It is difficult to determine in this scenario whether Coach’s self-concept internal is higher than his goal internalization.
Scenario 4: Ron
Ron demonstrates behavior that indicates he is motivated by intrinsic process motivation. He seems to be just enjoying himself and soaking up the moment. There is no mention by Ron of his or even the team’s accomplishments, indicating that he is not particularly high in goal internalization or self-concept internal motivation. Also, because he doesn’t discuss any rewards or even himself, there appears to be very low instrumental and self-concept external motivation.
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Scenario 5: Chip the bench warmer
Chip demonstrates behavior that is characteristic of self-concept external motivation. It seems the joy of wearing the “league champs” carries greater valence for him than the achievement itself. This suggests a fairly low amount of both self-concept internal motivation and goal internalization. There is also some evidence of instrumental motivation in Chip. If he views this jacket as his reward for being on the winning team, then you could say he exhibits instrumental motivation.
Scenario 6: Shallow Martin
Shallow Martin displays behavior characteristic of instrumental motivation. His reward for winning the game is getting a date for the prom. Some might also describe his behaviors as indicators of self-concept external because he has enhanced his reputation by winning the game - thus his improved reputation may now help him get a date. It is pretty likely that Shallow Martin has both instrumental and self-concept external motivation driving his behavior.
Scenario 7: Louie the street vendor
Louie is seems driven exclusively by instrumental motivation. He was ready to make money no matter who won and when asked, he gave the impression that he couldn’t have cared less who won the game. Louie the street vendor does not demonstrate any other sources of motivation in this scenario.
Scenario 8: Dexter Demont
Dexter Demont seems to be motivated by self-concept internal and by goal internalization. Because he is interested in improving and becoming the best that he can be, this demonstrates self-concept internal motivation. Because he talks so much about the team goals and his disappointment that the team didn’t win, he demonstrates goal internalization. Dexter Demont also shows a little bit of self-concept external motivation because of his attention to how he may have let his teammates down, when they were counting on him. This would demonstrate some self-concept external motivation.
Scenario 9: John Hopper
John Hopper seems to be driven by self-concept external and instrumental motivation. He demonstrates self-concept external motivation because of his concern for how ‘things will look’ on his resume. He demonstrates instrumental motivation when he talks about gaining rewards (admission to college) for his efforts. John Hopper does not demonstrate any other sources of motivation.
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Student Reactions
As a useful writing exercise, students can keep weekly journals to reflect on theories and lessons learned from class activities. Students are encouraged to relate the theories learned to situations in their professional and personal lives. Feedback from this exercise has been very positive. Students communicate a strong appreciation for the sources of motivation in a variety of settings. Many are enlightened or surprised that the sources of motivation are often times quite easy to pick up from people’s comments and behaviors. Students have fun with this exercise and can relate to many of the attitudes taken by the players depicted in it. Some students report that they will never watch sporting event interviews the same way ever again!
Through the execution and processing of this exercise, students should develop an appreciation for how the different sources of motivation may drive behavior. They will also practice applying the sources of motivation to interpersonal settings and develop integration skills. Student reactions suggest that the exercise is an effective and useful tool for understanding and applying sources of motivation.
Author’s Note
CASNR Journal Series # 01-7. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 2000 Eastern Academy of Management Conference, Boston, MA. The author thanks Dick Fleming, Leverne Barrett and four anonymous reviewers from EAM and JBAM for their input at various stages of this manuscript.
References
Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 142-175.
Ashforth, B. & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 20-39.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Barbuto, J. E., & Brown, L. L. (1999). Motivating your employees. NebGuide G99-1397A, Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
Barbuto, J. E., Fritz, S. M., & Marx, D. (2000). A field study of two measures of work motivation for predicting leader’s transformational behaviors. Psychological Reports, 86, 295-300.
Barbuto, J. E., Fritz, S. M., & Marx, D. (In press). A field study of two measures of work motivation for predicting leader’s influence tactics used. Journal of Social Psychology.
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Barbuto, J. E. & Scholl, R. W. (1999). Leader’s motivation and leader’s perception of follower’s motivation as predictors of leader’s influence tactics. Psychological Reports, 84, 1087-1098.
Barbuto, J. E., & Scholl, R. W. (1998). Motivation sources inventory: Development and validation of new scales to measure an integrative taxonomy of motivation. Psychological Reports, 82, 1011-1022.
Barnard, C. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Brief, A. & Aldag, R. (1981). The self in organizations: A conceptual review. Academy of Management Review, 6, 75-88.
Etzioni, A. (1961). A comparative analysis of complex organizations. NY: Free Press.
Jung, C. G. (1971). Psychological types. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Katz, D., & Kahn, R.L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations. NY: Wiley.
Kegan, R. G. (1979). The evolving self. The Counseling Psychologist, 8, 5-34.
Kelman, H. C. (1958). Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 51-56.
Leonard, N. Beauvais, L., & Scholl, R. W. (1999). Work motivation: An incorporation of self-concept based process. Human Relations, 52, 969-998.
Locke, E. & Latham, G. (1984). Goal setting: A motivational technique that works. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row.
McClelland, D. C. (1985). Human Motivation. Glenview, ILL: Scott, Foresman.
Sullivan, J. (1989). Self theories and employee motivation. Journal of Management, 15, 345-363.
Vroom, V.H. (1964). Work and Motivation. New York: Wiley.
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Appendix
THE HIGH SCHOOL BASKETBALL CHAMPIONSHIP GAME:
THE POSTGAME COMMENTS: PROFILES IN MOTIVATION
Read the scenario and assess the source of motivation for each person discussed. For all people described in the scenarios provide the sources of motivation that seem evident (G, SCI, SCE, I, IP) and also explain why you chose that source? Good luck!
“With time for just one play in the game, Winchester High School was down by one point against Woburn High School. The winning team will be the League Champs. Winchester has just called timeout to diagram one last play. After the timeout, Winchester High in-bounds the ball … a pass to Rick Meme … a great pick set by Michael Selfless … the shot is up … it’s good! Winchester wins the championship as Rick Meme hits the winning shot at the buzzer!” What a great finish to a great championship game! …………………………………
“Now, let’s go to the locker room to get the post game reactions…”
Michael Selfless, who set the crucial pick in the final play, felt no inclination to bring his efforts to the public, but rather praised Rick for making the shot. “Rick has been the guy all season that we’ve turned to… and he came up big for us again!”
1. What motivates Michael and why?
Rick Meme, when asked about the game, said, “I told the coach in the timeout to give me the damn ball and I’d lead the team to victory…which I did by making that last shot! These games give me the opportunity to showcase my talents!”
2. What sources of motivation seem most important to Rick and why?
When asked about the final play, the coach cited both Rick Meme for making the shot and Michael Selfless for setting a great pick. “Rick made a great shot … he’s a great player! … I thought Michael really made it happen on that last play with that great pick he set.”
3. What seems to motivate the coach and why?
Ron Watevah, another key player on the team, played down the league championship victory saying, “It’s a great game, I love this sport, it’s so great playing with the energy in the filled gymnasium…this is what it’s all about…gotta love it!”
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4. What seems to motivate Ron Watevah and why?
Chip Cedar, a bench warmer on the team was also excited, “I’m just glad to be able to wear the basketball jacket around the school with ‘League Champs’ on it!”
5. What motivates Chip Cedar and why?
Shallow Martin, another player on the team was happy, but for a different reason, “Now I’ll be able to find a date to the prom!”
6. What motivates Shallow Martin and why?
The street vender, Louie Fasthands, was selling “Winchester High School League Champs” T-shirts outside the gymnasium. When asked how he felt about the Winchester victory he gave thumbs up and a wink, “Oh, this is great, the fans here can’t get enough of these T-shirts!” On the ground next to the street vender was a second box of T-shirts that read, “Woburn High School League Champs!”
7. What motivates Louie Fasthands and why?
Dexter Demont, the top scorer for Woburn High and the high scorer in the game was disappointed, “I gave it all I had, but you know, if I had made one extra shot, one less mistake…it’s hard to take knowing that the team was counting on me in games like this …but, there’s next year…this motivates me to work hard over the summer to improve my game and get ready to be the best player that I can be next season!”
8. What motivates Dexter and why?
John Hopper, the captain of Woburn High School’s basketball team, was also disappointed, “Being team captain is great, but if we’d won league champs I could have put ‘captain of league champion basketball team’ on college applications. I guess being team captain will still look OK on my record…”
9. What seems to motivate John Hopper and why?